Ur Guru: Wars

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Tuesday, 7 August 2018

Wars August 07, 2018

The Indo-China war of 1962-Why India lost?

The single largest military setback that India has ever had since its independence happens to be the Indo-China war of 1962.Shattering the blind faith that had made our Prime Minister Pt Jawarhalal Nehru believe that Chinese would never attack India, the Chinese encashed this hallucination and attacked India snatching from us a part of the crown of our country, the Aksaichin region. Thus enlightening the Indians that there existed another snake in our backyard other than Pakistan.

India gained independence in the year 1947 and the people’s republic of china was formed in the year 1949 when the communist party led by Mao Zedong took over china. Back then the boundary between India and China was not exactly demarcated but was based on the McMahon line which was drawn up by the British officer Henry McMahon during the Shimla Convention in the year 1914 which was then accepted by the Tibetan representatives.

Soon after People’s republic of China was formed,it took control over Tibet with the help of its army stating that Tibet was an integral part of china since ages in the past so it belonged to them.Since India was still a young democratic nation and wanted a peaceful and cordial relationship with its neighours,it did not interfere in the China’s issue of Tibet. In 1954, China and India negotiated the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence famously known as the Panchsheel by which the two nations agreed to abide in settling their disputes. India presented a frontier map which was accepted by China, and the slogan Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai (Indians and Chinese are brothers) was popularized during this time. Infact Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru gave up the UN permanent membership to china to build cordial relationship with them.

But the scenario in china was far from what Indians had perceived.Even when the Indian prime minister had announced in the parliament that the Macmohan line was the official border between India and China,many of the Chinese maps showed territories beyond the Macmohan line as theirs.The Chinese had also built a road in the Aksai region during 1956 connecting Xinjiang and Tibet which India only came to know in the year 1958 when it was shown on some of the Chinese maps.

In the year 1959 a Tibetian uprising against the stationed Chinese troops there failed and the Dalai Lama fled to India.The then Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru gave asylum to him which upset the Chinese leader Mao Zedong.The tensions further stepped up when Mao accused India of the Lhasa rebellion in Tibet.

As a consequence of their non-recognition of the McMahon Line, China's maps showed both the North East Frontier Area (NEFA) and Aksai Chin to be Chinese territory.In 1960, Zhou Enlai unofficially suggested that India drop its claims to Aksai Chin in return for a Chinese withdrawal of claims over NEFA. Adhering to his stated position, Nehru believed that China did not have a legitimate claim over either of these territories, and thus was not ready to concede them. This adamant stance was perceived in China as Indian opposition to Chinese rule in Tibet. Nehru declined to conduct any negotiations on the boundary until Chinese troops withdrew from Aksai Chin, a position supported by the international community.It believed that India was simply securing its claim lines in order to continue its "grand plans in Tibet". India's stance that China withdraw from Aksai Chin caused continual deterioration of the diplomatic situation to the point that internal forces were pressuring Nehru to take a military stance against China. At the beginning of 1961, Nehru appointed General B. M. Kaul as army Chief of General Staff, but he refused to increase military spending and prepare for a possible war. By 1959, India started sending Indian troops and border patrols into disputed areas. This program created both border skirmishes and deteriorating relations between India and China. The aim of this policy was to create outposts behind advancing Chinese troops to interdict their supplies, forcing them north of the disputed line. There were eventually 60 such outposts, including 43 north of the McMahon Line, to which India claimed sovereignty. China viewed this as further confirmation of Indian expansionist plans directed towards Tibet. Kaul was confident, through contact with Indian Intelligence and CIA information, that China would not react with force. Indeed, at first the PLA simply withdrew, but eventually Chinese forces began to counter-encircle the Indian positions which clearly encroached into the north of McMahon Line. This led to a tit-for-tat Indian reaction, with each force attempting to outmanoeuver the other. Despite the escalating nature of the dispute, the two forces withheld from engaging each other directly.

On 20 October 1962, the Chinese People's Liberation Army launched two attacks, 1000 kilometres apart. In the western theatre, the PLA sought to expel Indian forces from the Chip Chap valley in Aksai Chin while in the eastern theatre, the PLA sought to capture both banks of the Namka Chu river. Some skirmishes also took place at the Nathula Pass, which is in the Indian state of Sikkim . Gurkha rifles travelling north were targeted by Chinese artillery fire. After four days of fierce fighting, the three regiments of Chinese troops succeeded in securing a substantial portion of the disputed territory.

On the Aksai Chin front, China already controlled most of the disputed territory. Chinese forces quickly swept the region of any remaining Indian troops. Late on 19 October, Chinese troops launched a number of attacks throughout the western theatre. By 22 October, all posts north of Chushul had been cleared.

On 24 October, Indian forces fought hard to hold the Rezang La Ridge, in order to prevent a nearby airstrip from falling to the Chinese.This battle is considered to be one of the most important battles of the Indian army history as around 100 Indian soldiers killed more than 1000 Chinese soldiers.Major Shaitan sing was awarded the Param Vir chakra for his bravery here.

The four days of fighting were followed by a three-week lull. Zhou ordered the troops to stop advancing as he attempted to negotiate with Nehru. He sent Nehru a letter, proposing

1. A negotiated settlement of the boundary

2. That both sides disengage and withdraw twenty kilometres from present lines of actual control

3. A Chinese withdrawal north in NEFA

4. That China and India not cross lines of present control in Aksai Chin.

Nehru rejected this proposal as already the Chinese troops were 40km into the indian territory and another 20 km would mean India losing 60km of land.So thus, the Indian parliament announced a national emergency and passed a resolution which stated their intent to "drive out the aggressors from the sacred soil of India. After Zhou received Nehru's letter rejecting his proposal, the fighting resumed on the eastern theatre on 14 November (Nehru's birthday), with an Indian attack on Walong,inflicting heavy casualties on the Chinese. The Chinese resumed military activity on Aksai Chin and NEFA hours after the Walong battle.

By 19^th November China had reached its claim lines so the PLA did not advance farther, and it declared a unilateral cease-fire.The ceasefire declaration stated,

Beginning from 21 November 1962, the Chinese frontier guards will cease fire along the entire Sino-Indian border. Beginning from 1 December 1962, the Chinese frontier guards will withdraw to positions 20 kilometres behind the line of actual control which existed between China and India on 7 November 1959. In the eastern sector, although the Chinese frontier guards have so far been fighting on Chinese territory north of the traditional customary line, they are prepared to withdraw from their present positions to the north of the illegal McMahon Line, and to withdraw twenty kilometres back from that line. In the middle and western sectors, the Chinese frontier guards will withdraw twenty kilometres from the line of actual control.

According to the China's official military history, the war achieved China's policy objectives of securing borders in its western sector, as China retained de facto control of the Aksai Chin. After the war, India abandoned the Forward Policy, and the de facto borders stabilised along the Line of Actual Control. The aftermath of the war saw sweeping changes in the Indian military to prepare it for similar conflicts in the future, and placed pressure on Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who was seen as responsible for failing to anticipate the Chinese attack on India. Indians reacted with a surge in patriotism and memorials were erected for many of the Indian troops who died in the war. Arguably, the main lesson India learned from the war was the need to strengthen its own defences and a shift from Nehru's foreign policy with China based on his stated concept of "brotherhood". Because of India's inability to anticipate Chinese aggression, Prime Minister Nehru faced harsh criticism from government officials, for having promoted pacifist relations with China. Indian President Radhakrishnan said that Nehru's government was naive and negligent about preparations, and Nehru admitted his failings.So thus the war finally came to an end.It was also during this period that Lata Mangeshkar sang A mere watan ke logo which brought tears to nehru’s eyes.Another striking feature of this war was that neither of the two countries used the airforce.Later it was revealed that it was advantageous for India it it hasd used the airforce as the Chinese did not have enough fuel or the long runways for the airforce.Henderson-Brooks committee was set up to find the reasons for the indian loss in the war.This committee recently submitted its report but it is still classified as it has found many people in the higher order of ranks guilty of India’s defeat in the war.So this was the war of that India lost.

Guruprasad Veerannavaru 0

Wednesday, 3 January 2018

Wars January 03, 2018

The Indo-Pak War of 1971| The Bangladesh Liberation War

The war that created a new nation, the war that refueled the pride of the Indian armed forces, the war that put a full stop to the Nazi like genocide that killed nearly 3 million innocent people of Bangladesh, the Indo-Pak war of 1971 was a huge set back to Pakistan and a remarkable demonstration of strength, intelligence and logistical capabilities of India.

Soon after the independence, Pakistan was divided into west Pakistan(which consisted of 4 provinces) and east Bengal (which later became east Pakistan) separated from each other by 1600 miles of Indian territory but united by a common faith. The west mainly consisted of Urdu and Punjabi speaking Muslims and on the eastern side Bengali speaking Muslims and Hindus were the majority. Although the population of the two zones was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widely perceived that east Pakistan was being exploited economically leading to many grievances. The budget allocated to east was less than 50% of that allocated to the west. Bengalis made just 5% of the total of the Pakistan armed forces.

Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings outweighed any religious unity. The bengalis were very proud of their culture and language which was unacceptable to the west Pakistani elite who considered it to be a smack of Hindu culture.
But the Bengali Muslims tended to be less conservative in religious zeal and had come to accept their Hindu minority and neighbours.

As early as in 1948 Governor General Mahummad Ali Zinnah declared that "Urdu and only Urdu" would be the federal language of Pakistan. The government's stand was widely viewed as an attempt to supress the culture of more than 30% of the Bengali speaking Eastern wing. Thus the people of east Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English and protested the removal Bengali script from currency and stamps during the language movement in 1948.This movement reached its climax when on 21st February 1952 the police fired on the protesting students and civilians causing several deaths.UNESCO declared this day as the international mother language day in November 1999.

In November 1969, General Yahya Khan took over from Ayub and announced elections under a “legal framework for general elections”. The elected National Assembly was to finalize a constitution within 120 days. In the elections held on December 6, 1970, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s Awami League, which contested on a six-point programme, won 160 of the 162 seats in East Pakistan, and none in West Pakistan. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party won 81 of the 138 seats in West Pakistan, but Mujib had a clear overall majority in the House to become the Prime Minister. But Bhutto, who was backed by the Pakistan Army, claimed parity with Mujib saying he was the sole representative of the people of West Pakistan.

After political negotiations failed, Yahya decided to crack down. On March 1, he announced the indefinite postponement of the National Assembly; Mujib responded by calling a strike on March 3. One hundred and seventy-two people were killed and 358 others were wounded during that week, according to official figures.

On March 25, with Awami League cadre also in the streets, Yahya met military officers at Dhaka and gave the go-ahead for the final assault. At 11.30 pm on March 25, Operation Searchlight began simultaneously across the whole of East Pakistan. At least 26,000 people were killed, according to Pakistan’s Hamoodur Rahman Commission; Bangladesh, however, claims that as many as 3,000,000 were killed by Pakistani soldiers in a brutal campaign of rape, murder and pillage. Some 10 million refugees fled to India.

India declared support for the Awami League, opened the East Pakistan border, and the BSF offered limited aid to the Bengali resistance. The Indian leadership decided not to directly intervene, but chose to get involved: the Army’s Eastern command took over responsibility for East Pakistan operations on April 29 and, on May 15, launched Operation Jackpot, a full-fledged operation to recruit, train, arm, equip, supply and advise Mukti Bahini fighters engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Pakistan military. India also launched a global diplomatic offensive to help create Bangladesh.

In between May and December Mukti Bahini with the help of Indian Army carried out offensives on eastern and western borders of East Pakistan and caused a worrying disturbance to Pakistan and it was clear to Islamabad by this time that open conflict was inevitable and east Pakistan was indefensible in the long run.So the decision to attack India with preemptive air strike was taken on 30 November 1971 by General Yahya Khan

On December 3, 1971, Pakistan launched an air attack in the western sector on 11 of Indian airfields, including Ambala in Haryana, Amritsar in Punjab, and Udhampur in Jammu and Kashmir. The attacks did not succeed in inflicting substantial damage. The Indian air force retaliated the next day and quickly achieved air superiority. On the ground, the strategy in the eastern sector marked a significant departure from previous Indian battle plans and tactics, which had emphasized set-piece battles and slow advances. The strategy adopted was a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armored units and close air support that rapidly converged on Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan. Lieutenant General Sagat Singh, who commanded the eighth, twenty-third, and fifty-seventh divisions, led the Indian thrust into East Pakistan. As these forces attacked Pakistani formations, the Indian air force rapidly destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dhaka airfield out of commission. In the meantime, the Indian navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan. Dhaka fell to combined Indian and Mukti Bahini forces on December 16, bringing a quick end to the war.

There was also intense action in the western sector including the tank battle of Longewala, an armoured operation in Rajasthan and a major Indian counter offensive in the Sialkot-Shakargarh area south and west of Chhamb.The Indian navy also played a great role in the war by successfully executing operation Trident and Python sinking PNS Khyber, a destroyer and PNS Muhafiz, a minesweeper and damaging Pakistani destroyer Shajehan.

So the war officially came to an end on 16th December 1971 when Lieutenant-General A. A. K. Niazi, supreme commander of Pakistani Army in East Pakistan,surrendered to the Allied Forces of India and East Pakistan represented by Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Arora of Indian Army.India captured around 90,000 POW(Prisoners of War).Indian forces captured around 5,795 square miles (15,010 km2) land in the West. India lost around 2500 personnel against 9000 of Pakistan.Pakistan lost its status as the biggest Muslim nation, half its navy, a quarter of its air force and a third of its army.

India returned all the POW (Prisoners of war) according to the Simla agreement of 1972.Bangladesh became an independent nation. Sheik Mujbur Rehman became the first presient of the free nation. Pakistan appointed Hamoodur Rahman Commission to study the causes of war. Four Indian soldiers also received the Param Vir Chakra. Flying Officer Nirmal Jit Sekhon became the first from Indian Airforce to receive that honour.So this was the story of the Bangladesh Liberation War. But do you think, it was a preplanned strategy by India to supress Pakistan as it has been claiming since then..?Was it the mistake of Indian side by letting go of people like General Tikka Khan who was famously called as "Butcher of Bengal" instead of trying them for genocide? Let me know your views in the comments section below.

Guruprasad Veerannavaru 0

Thursday, 21 December 2017

Wars December 21, 2017

The Battle of Plassey

One of the most decisive battles of the British conquest of the Indian subcontinent, the victory at the battle of Plassey consolidated the British power thus making it easier for them to collect exorbitant taxes and satisfy their motives of trade. But how did all this happen. How could a band of foreign nationalists who came to buy silk and species managed to win a war.? Well that’s the charm of history.

The East India Company which came to India in the year 1612, had gained a substantial presence in the Indian subcontinent by the end of 17th century. And by the first half of the 18th century they had established their trading centres at Bombay, Kolkatta and Madras and also had an upper hand over their rivals the French and the Dutch .So they always pressed for less taxes and free trade to the successive Nawabs but the Nawabs were strong and refused any kind of concession for the company while at the same time demanded large tributes from the company for its right to trade.

After the death of Alivardi Khan, his 23 year old grandson Siraj-ud-ullah became the Nawab of Bengal. He was a man of ferocious temper and feeble understanding. So to secure its interests the company tried to help one of the Nawabs rival to ascend the throne which it failed to do so. This infuriated the Nawab too much that he asked the company to stop meddling in its political affairs and stop fortifications and pay the revenues. But all the negotiations failed.

So the angered Nawab at once his 30000 soldiers marched to the British factory at Kasimbazar, arrested all the officials, blocked all the ships and headed towards Calcutta to capture the fort there. Fort William was captured and all the English soldiers were imprisoned in what came to be known as the black hole. Not the one which Stephen hawking discovered. But this black hole was a chamber which measured 14*18 feet and 143 prisoners were all flocked into this single room. Days later when the prisoners were released only 23 walked out free where as all others died due to suffocation and asphygation.

When this news reached the company officials at Madras, they sent a troop of 3000 soldiers commanded by Robert Clive, the British officer who had brought fame to the company by winning the Carnatic wars and Charles Watson. But however the company didn’t want a war at first place. The letter from the council read “the object of this expedition was not merely to re-establish the British settlement in Bengal but also to obtain ample recognition of the company’s privileges and reparations for its losses without the risk of any war.”

Meanwhile William Watts, a British official at the court of Bengal informed Robert Clive of a conspiracy that was being hatched by a few to overthrow the Nawab Siraj-ud-ullah. So Robert Clive held clandestine meetings with Mir Jafar, Lutuf Khan and Rai Durlabh. He made an alliance with these people that they would not participate in the war in case if a war was inevitable and in return Mir Jafar would get the throne.

The battle actually took place at Palashi, the anglicised version being Plassey on the banks of river Bhagirathi on 23rd of June 1757. But the battle would go on to last for only 11 hours. The British had a combined troop of 3000 soldiers while the Nawab army accounted to more than 50000 soldiers. But 35000 of them did not fight the war as they were commanded by the defector Mir Jafar. So the Nawab lost the battle due to the political shrewdness of the British.

As per the alliance, Mir Jafar was made the Nawab of Bengal, the British got huge sum of money as war reparations and were given the right to collect taxes and trade free. Siraj-ud-ullah was assassinated. Thus the war came to an end but its ripples could be felt even after decades and centuries.

The east India Company would later go on to win the battle of Buxar and become Diwan of Bengal and would continue its policy of annexation by introducing many controversial laws like the subsidiary alliance and the doctrine of lapse and so on until the first war of Indian independence in 1857.

Guruprasad Veerannavaru 0